Modernism began initially after the first world war. In Europe, it had started to Flourish by the 1930's, by architects such as the Swiss-French architect - Le Corbusier (Charles-Edouard Jeanneret-Gris). He had already started to make an impression on the modern movement. In France, complexes were being designed by him
Le Corbusier
One example being his Unite d'Habitation ( translated "Housing Unit"). These complexes were built borrowing from the Architects study into Soviet Communal Housing Projects. Using concrete and following his "breton brut" theme (raw concrete) The image below shows a 12 storey Apartment block by Le Corbusier, which comprises of a ferroconcrete grid with appartments slotted in. This being the concept which Sheffields Parkhill was partly based on. In the Unite d'Habitation in Marseilles, Le Corbusier however had enclosed his streets within the building. Parkhills "streets" were left open on one side, and exposed to the harsh English climate..
La Maison du Fada (House of the Mad)
Modernism in Britain was somewhat behind its European counterparts. Examples were being created in Britain by European Architects. The formation of the CIAM (Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne) in 1928, saw modern architects bringing together their ideas and determination. A declaration was made by 24 architects from various countries that architecture in the future should be affected by the economy and social changes of the times. The CIAM served its purpose. However in the late 1950's two young British architects began to question the beliefs of the CIAM. These were namely Peter and Alison Smithson. Modernism had been embraced by the formation of the CIAM. Although young architects had concerns that the values of the CIAM would bring about an isolated society. CIAM Wikipedia listing with Further Links
The Smithsons were beginning to question the ideas and visions of the CIAM. They were of the opinion that the current take on modern architecture was verging on creating damage to social structure and was in actual fact going to destroy communities by eliminating the feeling of neighbourliness that had been created by the slums - where the back to back terraces had brought people together and allowed for easy communication between residents, the Smithsons believed the new modernist way of living would infact isolate members of the community. The Smithsons attempted to try and advance modernism around their beliefs and to try and overcome the flaws which they saw in the modernist movement. They attempted to rectify what they saw as the wrongs of the modernist movement in their Golden Lane Housing Project. They finally managed to exemplify their vision with the Robin Hood Gardens Estate in London. Their concept was to replace the sprawling slums with a ground breaking concept- the concept of "Streets in the Sky". The ideology behind "Streets in the Sky" was to recreate the communities which had flourished in the back to back slums. As quoted from www.open2.net - "streets in the sky - an attempt to humanise Modernist urban theory"
Alison Smithson (1928-1993) who coincidentally, was born in Sheffield and Peter Smithson(1923-2003), were quite possibly the most controversial British Architects of the 20th Century. They had been plagued with attacks througout their architectural career. Having met whilst studying Architecture at Durham University, they married in 1949. One particular building they designed on the back of winning a competition, was Hunstanton School in Norfolk. The school gained much aclaim from Architecural critics, as well as receiving much controversy. Either way, it established the Smithsons in post war architecture.
Parkhill was based on the Brutalist Architecture style, this style of architecture was born in the 1950's and prospered through to the 1970's. Brutalism emerged on the back of the Modernist Architecture movement, which comprised of simple form, leaving behind the ornate features of pre modernist building design. The term "Brutalism" stemmed from the Smithsons, who picked up on the French phrase "Breton Brut", which translates to "Raw Concrete". Le Corbusier first used this phrase when he explained his choice of materials. Brutalist buildings are most certainly angular and bold, often featuring an external, visual concrete frame. To many the Brutalist form is very unfriendly and overpowering.
Peter and Alison Smithson
Hunstanton School, Norfolk
The Smithsons believed that cities should incorporate living, labour and leisure in the same areas. This was contrary to what those before had preached, where the belief was everything should be in its own special area. They had a vision of residents feeling a "sense of belonging" and "neighbourliness". They tried to portray their beliefs and reaction to Le Corbusier in a 213 home estate in East London.
It was the late 1960's and the Smithsons had before them an opportunity to realise their "Streets in the Sky". Their flats were a mixture of single story and two floor maisonettes, the same format as Parkhill was based on. It has since been quoted that Parkhill is "Robin Hood Gardens' cousin" - Robin Hood Gardens had a wide balcony on every third floor. The Smithsons vision was that the occupants would utilise the large balconies for childrens play and social interaction with other residents, thus trying to recreate the traditional street.
The Robin Hood Gardens Estate London
There is more in depth infomation about Robin Hood Gardens on the Brutalist Buildings page.
Here came a sudden influx of brutalist construction, a few of the major players are listed here.
Brutalisms first major building is seen as the Smithsons Hunstanton School, Norfolk, 1949–54. (As above) Other works by the Smithsons are The Sheffield University extension 1953 and the Golden Lane housing project
The Roehampton Housing Estate, London, 1952–9, occupies a 130-acre site beside Richmond Park and was designed by the London County Council Architects’ Department. The estate was haevily influenced by Le Corbusier’s Unite d’Habitation.
Parkhill, of course!
One of the most prominent brutalist architects, amongst his works are the Royal College of Physicians in 1964, in London’s Regent Park; the European Investment Bank, 1983, in Luxembourg; and the Royal National Theatre,1976 on London’s South Bank. Lasdun received a knighthood in 1976
Stirling was adverse to having his works recognised as Brutalist although many have Brutalist tendancies, these include: the Ham Common housing development, Richmond, Surrey, 1955-1958, the Selwyn College dormitory project, Cambridge. The Engineering Department Building, Leicester University 1959-1963 and the The History Faculty Building, Cambridge University 1964-1967
Erno Goldfinger Hungarian Born and creator of the infamous Trellick Tower and The shorter Balfron Tower. Goldfinger was also responsible for Carradale House 1970.Glenkerry House, London
The Garchey system was developed in France by Louis Garchey during the first world war. The system enables for waste to be placed into a receiver under the sink and then discharged into a drainage system. The waste is initially placed in a large receiver in the sink. A small plug within the large plug takes care of normal waste and water. When a certain amount of waste has been colleted within this plug/ receiver plunger is raised and the waste is discharged into cast iron stacks. The waste was collected in large pits and drawn through pipes to a central location for dehydration and burning in a furnace to create heat.
Diagram to Show the Garchey Receiver
A negative factor to the Garchey system is that it created a lot of Gas Build Up in the system, possibly the best way to explain the effects of this is taken direct from The Barbican Estate Website "If you think of the result of eating tin of baked beans and then apply that to a 6 to 43 storey building, you'll get the idea. So if pressure builds up in the system, gases can bubble back through the water in the U-bend and leave an unpleasant smell"
Garchey Receiver found in a Stripped out flat at Parkhill
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